This blog post is based on the chapter "Kabbo's !Kwaiń: The Past, Present and Possible Future of Kanna" by Nigel Gericke, MD, published in "The Ethnopharmacological Search for Psychoactive Drugs" (Eds. D. McKenna et al., Synergetic Press, Santa Fe, 2018, pp. 122-150, ISBN-13: 978-0907791683). Read the full chapter here: Kabbo's !Kwaiń: The Past, Present and Possible Future of Kanna.

Kanna refers to traditionally used plant material derived from various Sceletium species, with a documented history spanning centuries. This chapter provides an overview of its historical use, botany, recent research, clinical findings, and potential future developments, drawing from ethnographic, pharmacological, and clinical perspectives.

Background on Kanna from the Research

The chapter begins with an abstract outlining the structure: Part I covers historical use from 1610-1971; Part II addresses recent ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, and pre-clinical research from 1995-2017 on a standardized extract; Part III summarizes clinical experience and pilot studies; Part IV explores future scenarios for kanna and its alkaloids.

Folk names for traditionally used Sceletium species include "kanna" among Nama-speaking Khoikhoi people (sometimes written as "canna" or "channa"), "kougoed" among Afrikaans-speaking people (derived from Dutch "kaauwgoed" or "kauwgoed," meaning "chewing stuff"), and "!k”waï" or "!k”wai:n" among the now-extinct /Xam-speaking San people.

Botany

The genus Sceletium belongs to the Family Aizoaceae, Mesembryanthemoideae, characterized by distinctly skeletonized leaf venation visible in dried older leaves. Plants have a climbing or decumbent habit, succulent leaves sometimes with prominent idioblasts (bladder-like cells), flowers ranging from white or yellow to pale pink, and fruit capsules containing numerous small kidney-shaped seeds, brown to black in color.

The genus is distributed in arid southwestern South Africa, including parts of Northern Cape, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape provinces. Populations are typically scattered, but historically abundant in areas like Kougoedvlakte ("Chewing Stuff Plains") in Namaqualand and Kannaland ("The Land of Kanna") in the Western Cape, where it was traded widely.

Taxonomy is complex; Klak et al. (2007) proposed including Sceletium under Mesembryanthemum, but the chapter retains Sceletium. Eight species are recognized in Gerbaulet's 1996 revision: Sceletium tortuosum (L.) N.E. Br., S. crassicaule (Haw.) L. Bolus, S. emarcidum (Thunb.) L. Bolus ex H.J. Jacobson, S. exalatum Gerbaulet, S. expansum (L.) L. Bolus, S. rigidum L. Bolus, S. strictum L. Bolus, and S. varians (Haw.) Gerbaulet.

Synonyms for S. tortuosum include Mesembryanthemum aridum Moench, M. concavum Haw., M. tortuosum L., Pentacoilanthus tortuosus (L.) Rappa and Camorrone, Phyllobolus tortuosus (L.) Bittrich, Sceletium boreale L. Bolus, S. compactum L. Bolus, S. concavum (Haw.) Schwantes, S. framesii L. Bolus, S. gracile L. Bolus, S. joubertii L. Bolus, S. namaquense L. Bolus var. namaquense, S. namaquense L. Bolus var. subglobosum L. Bolus, S. ovatum L. Bolus, and S. tugwelliae L. Bolus.

Historical Reports (Part I)

Historical accounts from 1610-1971 document kanna's value. Early European visitors to the Cape of Good Hope sought kanna roots as a trade item, comparing them to ginseng ("ningin" or "ningimm root").

In 1610, the English East Indiaman The Globe, under Captain Hippon, stopped at the Cape en route to the East Indies. Lieutenant Peter Floris reported diligent searches for "Ningimm" roots per instructions, but winter timing yielded only decayed roots; the proper harvest season is December to February, known locally as "Canna."

In 1615, at Saldanha Bay, country people sold handfuls of "Ningin" roots for copper pieces; described as "a medicinable root much prized in Japan," tender and sweet as anise seeds when ripe.

In 1660, control over kanna fields made the Inqua king Hijkon "chief lord of all kings and potentates" (from Jan van Riebeeck’s journal).

In 1662, Jan van Riebeeck received kanna and sheep in exchange for gifts, noting similarity to Chinese ginseng.

The 1685 Dutch expedition to Namaqualand, led by Simon van der Stel, documented kanna extensively. The party included technical specialists like artist Heinrich Claudius. The journal describes kanna's abundance, preparation (fermentation), and indigenous uses for stamina during hunts and social activities. Claudius' illustrations depict the plant.

Further 1685 reports detail Namaqua use and trade. Expeditions in 1685-1686 failed to find copper but noted kanna.

Ethnographic records include //Kabbo, a /Xam San informant at Breakwater Convict Station in 1873, who provided the name "!k”waï" for "kaauwgoed" and described fermentation and uses for endurance and social bonds.

Other accounts from the 18th-20th centuries confirm widespread trade among Khoikhoi and San, with preparations involving fermentation in animal skins.

Recent Ethnobotany, Ethnopharmacology, and Pre-Clinical Research (Part II)

From 1995-2017, research on a commercialized standardized extract of Sceletium tortuosum (trademarked Zembrin) includes ethnobotany and pharmacology. Major alkaloids—mesembrine, mesembrenone, mesembrenol—are responsible for psychoactivity, with dual serotonin reuptake inhibitory (SRI) and phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4) inhibitory activity.

In vitro studies demonstrate these alkaloids' effects. In vivo, the extract's quantitative EEG electropharmacogram plots near Ginkgo biloba, Rhodiola rosea, and Rolipram, indicating influences on brain electrical activity.

Clinical Experience and Studies (Part III)

Clinical experience with Sceletium is summarized. Pilot randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies on the extract include:

• Safety and tolerability study.
• Pharmaco-Magnetic Resonance Imaging study.
• Cognitive function domains using CNS Vital Signs computerized neurocognitive test battery.
• Changes in brain electrical activity in response to cognitive and emotional challenges; changes in psychometric tests; and changes in the Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAM-A).

Future Scenarios (Part IV)

Scenarios for kanna and its alkaloids include potential as preventative supplements or complementary treatments, based on research findings.

Limitations and Future Research

As a review, the chapter synthesizes historical and research data; limitations include reliance on existing records. Future research could further explore applications and validate findings in broader contexts.